Introduction

Khyati (Epistemology or sources of knowledge) has been a fierce

subject of debate in India for many centuries. How can one have valid

knowledge (Prama) and what are the proximate means (pramanas) to valid

knowledge? This issue is important in Indic dharma systems because of their

claim that dhyana (meditation) or japa (repeatation of mantra) can lead to

supreme knowledge. An objection raised to this claim is the possibility that

dhyana or japa might be deluding people. How can one know that the experiences

claimed by Yogis are not hallucinations? Vedantic Acharyas were sensitive to

these issues.

Pramanas

Vedanta darshana developed the idea of pramana to answer the objections to

the Yogic experience. Historically, three basic pramanas have been accepted by

various Vedantic groups (some groups accept more pramanas). These are (1)

Pratakshya (direct perception), (2) Anumana (inference) and (3) Sabda Pramana

(Vedas). Pratakshya is sensory perception. Every minute of our waking life we

gather data through this means. Anumana allows us to deduce from indirect

evidence. Sabda Pramana is simply the Yogic experience obtained through

spiritual practice. Vedas are simply the most ancient spiritual experiential

data that is available to us. The Rishi, who wrote the Svetasvatara Upanishad,

directly affirms that:

*I know this great Person (Brahman) who is resplendent like the sun and is

beyond darkness. By knowing Him alone one transcends death; there is no other

path to go by. (Svetasvatara. Upanishad 3.8)*

This kind of bold affirmation of Truth is important for a beginner and is a source of

comfort for ordinary Hindus.

Lokayata objections

Even these pramanas were objected to by some people, specially, the Nastika

Lokayatas who followed the teachings of Rishi Charvaka. They rejected Sabda

Pramana as irrelevant since it is not based on sensory data. They also

rejected Anumana as insufficient and even dangerous. The point they made was

that many people have inferred, falsely, the presence of a ghost in a dark

night which turned out merely to be a tree. They rejected any data that is not

obtained through Pratkshya. Reply to Lokayata objections

Astika groups say that such a position would say that senses and reason are

the only sources of knowledge. This raises a very important question. How can

one know if the reality that we see through our senses and by applying reason

is the ENTIRE reality? Can Lokayatas give a guarantee that such is the case?

Then there is the question of dropping Anumana from the list of pramanas.

Modern Science says that quarks can never be directly observed but can only be

inferred through experiments. If you drop anumana then even modern science

will come to a screeching halt. Sabda Pramana

Astika groups assert that Sabda Pramana is extremely important in spiritual

practice. Why have they taken such a stance? Sabda Pramana is absolutely

necessary for a beginner. How can one even start one's enquiry into the

Ultimate Reality without some body of pre-existing knowledge? Jaimini points

out that the Veda (sabda Pramana) is the source of our knowledge just where

pratakshya and Anuman fail to be of assistance to us (Mimansa Sutra I.i.5).

Sayanacharya says in the introduction to his commentary on Rig Veda that the

chief function of Sabda Pramana is to communicate the knowledge of the two

higher ideals of dharma and moksha and the proper means to their realization.

Vedantic Acharyas were, however, sensitive to the charge that Yogic experience

is merely hallucinatory. It is entirely possible that a single rishi may be

misled and his experience may be just a hallucination. So Vedantic Acharyas

have made the Sruti a library and NOT a single book. Sruti records the

collective experience of many rishis. It is of course true that even many

rishis might have been misled but the chances are smaller. The second

precaution they took was to see if the best minds of Hindus would accept the

Vedas as sabda Pramana for a long period of time. The argument was that if the

best minds think that there is some truth in the Vedas then one's confidence

in the Vedas increases. Thirdly, there is always the route of spiritual

practice and directly testing the Vedic claims. Finally, there have been men

like Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Sankaracharya and many others who have claimed that

they have had the same experience as the Rishis.